Wicked Problem
Wicked problems are encountered by all people on a day-to-day basis whether they know it or not. They affect large sections of society and have multiple causes and contributing factors (Bueren, Klijn & Koppenjan, 2003). The multidimensional nature of these problems makes them extremely difficult to solve. One critical aspect of their multidimensionality is the various stakeholders who have meaningful interests in correcting the problem (Bueren et. al, 2003). Their non-linear configurations also create complex interactions that often involve multiple possible solutions (Bueren et. al, 2003). No strategy can be seen as right or wrong but merely as the best available at the time. There can be numerous viable strategies because each stakeholder potentially has different perspectives on solving the problem (Bueren et. al, 2003). As time progresses and new understandings emerge, more effective ways to address these issues may arise (Bueren et. al, 2003).
This case study will begin by introducing the problem of declining wild fish stocks caused by aquacultural activities. Next, it will discuss the main stakeholders on the issue. Finally, the study will provide various recommendations to improve the situation.
Introduction
Decreasing wild salmon stocks is rooted in industrial aquaculture on British Columbia (BC) coasts with a decade’s long history in the province. Pacific Salmon are so important because they are key species in their ecosystem, responsible for providing food and nutrients to the plants and animals within it. The interconnected nature and multiple stakeholders make the protection of wild populations a wicked problem.
In the early 2000s, new licences were suspended due to concerns over the negative effect aquaculture has on wild salmon stock and the surrounding environment. More recently, issuing new licenses was brought back through a process involving both the federal (Department of Fisheries and Oceans) and provincial (Ministry of Agriculture) government. However, various social and environmental problems have not been addressed adequately.
The fish farming industry in BC has existed since the 1970s and since then the industry has experienced huge growth. This growth saw total production value and output double between 1995 and 2005 (Freake, Knight, Luo, Pareja, & Boulos, 2019). Conversely, the wild fish industry had a 30% decrease in output during that time (Freake et. al, 2019). As of 2007, BC became the fourth largest producer of farmed salmon globally, with $167 million added to its GDP; wild fisheries contributed $67 million that same year (The Legislative Assembly of BC, 2007). Table 1 shows the results of the Pacific Salmon Foundations State of the Salmon Report, confirming that across all regions and all species, the overall abundance of wild salmon and steelhead have declined between 1954-2016 (B.C. Wild Salmon Advisory Council, 2019).
Table 1: (B.C. Wild Salmon Advisory Council, 2019)
Several stakeholders have debated over the future of the aquaculture industry. These debates refer to the locations of farms and concerns about social, environmental, and economic impacts. Additionally, there have been hostilities between aquaculture and wild fisheries. Both are operated by commercial entities and First Nations. Due to these hostilities, there is a need for decisions involving how fish farm licenses are issued and where to locate them. There also needs to be scrutiny over employment issues, environmental impacts, farming operations, and community relationships.
Aquacultures' effect on the surrounding environment is a natural resource issue that can be labelled as a wicked problem because it meets the qualifying criteria: widescale societal impact, multiple contributing factors, several stakeholders, non-linear, and various solutions.
Stakeholders
Indigenous Peoples
When identifying stakeholders, one of the first and most important actors to acknowledge is Indigenous peoples. They are critical for maintaining the biological integrity and conservation of many ecosystems. The ecological knowledge indigenous peoples have acquired through generations of trial and error has made them masters of their respective environments. Due to this knowledge, indigenous land-use practices play a fundamental role in controlling deforestation and reducing carbon dioxide emissions (Mistry & Berardi, 2016). Satellite imagery also suggests that indigenous lands contribute substantially to maintaining carbon stocks and enhancing biodiversity relative to the adjoining territory (Mistry & Berardi, 2016). Many of their sustainable land-use practices are developed and implemented by the community with little influence from external stakeholders (Mistry & Berardi, 2016). Generally, when indigenous people develop solutions to environmental challenges, they do not seek solutions aimed at the problems themselves but look for holistic solutions (Mistry & Berardi, 2016). These solutions increase resilience to a wide range of shocks and stresses (Mistry & Berardi, 2016). Holistic perspectives to address challenges make indigenous solutions perfect for helping to manage wicked problems.
Specifically, the Indigenous people living on the coasts of British Columbia have had cultural continuity for at least two millennia before European contact (Trosper, 2002). The governing principles used by these indigenous populations allowed their societies to achieve sustainability and resilience in relationships to their ecosystems (Trosper, 2002). A prime example of this is how they managed their wild fisheries. The majority of First Nations have taken an oppositional view of fish farms for many reasons. Some factors include impacts on cultural heritage, rights and title, and general concern over the health of their communities and lands (Freake et al., 2019). The salmon is a culturally significant species for First Nations. Lack of meaningful consultation about fish farms is perceived as direct opposition to First Nations’ rights and title to their traditional lands, waters and fishing (Freake et al., 2019). For many First Nations, the concern over fish farming impacts on wild fish populations far outweighs the potential economic benefit. Along with the environmental concerns, much of the lost Indigenous access to fisheries can be attributed to government policies, regulations and programs that intentionally or indirectly reduced their participation in food/social/ceremonial, commercial and recreational fisheries (B.C. Wild Salmon Advisory Council, 2019).
Despite the opposition from most First Nations communities, there are still some who support the fish farming industry. Examples of this are the Tlatlasikwala First Nation and the Ahousaht Nation. They are amongst several First Nations communities engaged in partnerships with aquaculture corporations to bring economic stimulus to their communities (Freake et al., 2019). Indigenous people are a stakeholder often underrepresented in the literature concerning this issue. For the declining salmon populations to recover, consultation and engagement in conservation efforts are essential.
Government
The Canadian federal government and the Government of British Columbia are key stakeholders regarding fish farming and its detrimental effects on wild salmon stocks. The Federal Government, through the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), is the body responsible for authorizing salmon farming licenses (DFO, 2017). The provincial government is responsible for deciding site locations (DFO, 2017). There are three primary objectives the DFO outlines. 1. Economically Prosperous Maritime Sectors and Fisheries, 2. Sustainable Aquatic Ecosystems, and 3. Safe and Secure Waters (DFO, 2017).
The DFO believes that salmon farming is in line with those objectives and that the aquaculture industry is, “comprehensively regulated to oversee the environmental, food safety, and animal health aspects of salmon operations” (DFO, 2017). The DFO also boasts about its contributions to the literature surrounding salmon farming (DFO, 2017). Despite their claims and self-congratulations, there are doubts about the DFO policies. Doubts have arisen because they have attempted to silence DFO scientists whose research exposes the harmful effects of salmon farming on wild salmon populations (Freakes, 2019).
As highlighted in the documentary The Pristine Coast, it was the government mismanagement of fisheries, beginning in the 1970s, which ultimately lead to the depletion of wild salmon stocks (Renyard, 2014). The recession of the 1980s saw the need to boost national revenue and the fall of common property fisheries leading to their privatization (Renyard, 2014). The DFO has also allowed the use of commercial netting on the Pacific coast, increasing the number of fish commercial fishermen could harvest at one time. Overfishing during this time led to the shutting down of some fisheries to let salmon populations recover (Renyard, 2014). In response to the fishery closures, the provincial government expanded its aquaculture industry, approving one fish farm license per day for several months (Renyard, 2014). Privatization and an expanding industry were also coupled with the introduction of Atlantic Salmon to west coast farms. This introduction was allowed by the federal and provincial governments, ignoring warnings regarding the risks of bringing in new diseases, parasites, and invasive species to the ecosystem (Renyard, 2014). Atlantic salmon is cheaper and faster to grow, is more domesticated, needs less space, and can be kept at higher densities (Renyard, 2014). The economic benefits of this introduction were too great to pass up.
The introduction of the Atlantic salmon in 1991 brought with it the bacterial disease Furunculosis. Salmon infected with the bacteria bleed internally and develop boils and blisters on their skin (Renyard, 2014). The DFO and the Province of BC refused to release information on the strain of the bacteria, preventing discovery of its origin and comparison to the strains found in the Atlantic fisheries of Europe (Renyard, 2014). As wild salmon migrated past the infected fish farms, they contracted the disease. The disease was initially treated by dumping large amounts of antibiotics into the farm pens but after a second outbreak in 1994 the virus had become antibiotic-resistant (Renyard, 2014). Immediately, the wild Chinook populations crashed. After environmental groups urged the DFO to test wild populations, wild salmon were confirmed to be infected. However, the DFO refused to report on the antibiotic resistance profile of the fish or whether it was the same strain as in the farms (Renyard, 2014). Figure 1, taken by biologist Alexandra Morton, shows the effects this disease can have on salmon. Alexandra is another scientist who was threatened with massive fines and jail time for the research she conducted on afflicted fish.
Figure 1: (Morton, 2019)
Along with the outbreak of disease, sea lice began to appear on wild and farmed fish. Similar to Furunculosis, the sea lice began by thriving in the fish farm pens. They were then transferred to wild populations (Renyard, 2014). While attached to the salmon, lice will dig into their skin and feed on the host while still alive. Should enough lice become attached the result could be death. Even if the salmon do not perish, they will live a reduced quality of life compared to non or minimally infected hosts (Renyard, 2014). Just like the bacterial outbreak, the government did very little to stop the spread and actively attempted to silence scientists linking fish farm lice to the declining wild salmon populations. Figure 2 shows the extent to which salmon can become infected. Small salmon fry are particularly vulnerable to being overpowered by lice due to their small size.
Figure 2: (Schmunk, 2017)
Wild Fishing and Aquaculture Industries
BC is the fourth-largest producer of farmed salmon in the world, with farmed salmon representing BC's largest agricultural export. In addition to its contributions to GDP, the industry creates 1,500 full-time jobs (The Legislative Assembly of BC, 2007). Salmon farming also doubled in production value and output between 1995 and 2005 (The Legislative Assembly of BC, 2007). The industry is comprised of around 11 companies, mainly Marine Harvest, Cermaq, and Grieg Seafood (Airdrie, McFaul, Thompson, & Tischenko, 2015). These companies produce 88% of all farmed fish, located in Campbell River, Port Hardy and Tofino (Airdrie et al., 2015).
The fish farming industry characterizes itself as a sustainable and valuable alternative to wild fishing, claiming they reduce pressures on wild populations (Freake, 2019). The industry views itself as highly progressive and claims that it has little ecological impact on ecosystems not immediately near fish farms (Freake, 2019). Although these companies maintain the position that they are sustainable and environmentally friendly, they are the biggest driver of wild salmon stock declines.
Recommendations
Invest in the restoration of critical salmon habitat
There should be a focus on enabling resources for initiatives that have been identified and prioritized because of their importance to weakened stocks, species at risk and community economies and well-being (B.C. Wild Salmon Advisory Council, 2019). There must also be an investment in the technical and financial resources necessary to support existing initiatives developed by community/Indigenous organizations. Many of these projects are high profile and important to local communities. This will help raise public commitment surrounding government objectives and help build community stewardship.
A list of restoration projects can be found on the DFO website.
Make the switch from open-net farms to contained facilities
The switch is the most effective measure to take when the goal is to protect wild fish populations. Open water fish farms allow for disease transmission, escaped Atlantic populations, sea lice infection, algae blooms from fish waste and food, and disruption of natural ecosystem processes. The government of BC has also recognized this need stating that “we're very concerned as a government about protecting wild salmon and the migratory routes that they use and we're very interested in moving to closed containment where feasible” (Wilson, 2018). Doug Donaldson, the B.C. minister of Forest, Land and Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development, says the provincial government can't ban open-net fish farms, as Washington state did, because they are regulated by the federal government (Wilson, 2018). Increasing intergovernmental collaboration is another area of improvement that will help wild salmon. Should closed-net facilities be implemented on an industry-wide scale the pests and disease afflicting salmon will lose a massive contributor to their success.
Integrate Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) into future planning decisions
The integration of TEK into fisheries management is a valuable tool for restoring the health of the Pacific salmon habitat. There are many good reasons to use TEK in salmon management. One reason is that people who have been living near and harvesting a resource for a lifetime (or for generations) are aware of the spatial and temporal distribution of the resource and critical habitat (Murray, Wieckowski, Hurlburt, Soto & Johnnie, 2011). They are also aware of the linkages among and between species in relation to ecological processes (Murray et al., 2011). This awareness allows them to easily identify changes over time.
TEK may also be the only form of knowledge available at remote sites where there is poor scientific data (Murray et al., 2011). Additionally, the inclusion of TEK makes economic sense due to government agencies facing budget cuts. These agencies will increasingly rely on more shared management models that shift some of their responsibility to non-government partners (Murray et al., 2011). This integration of TEK will provide environmental, social, and economic benefits for all stakeholders involved in fisheries management.
Final Thoughts
The issue of salmon farming on the coast of BC is truly the perfect example of a wicked problem. There are wide-reaching societal impacts regarding health, economics, and the environment. There are also several stakeholders with competing views, keeping the debate active over decades. If this problem is to be solved there will need to be a combination of the various solutions. The diversity of thought and action toward these solutions will allow fair utilization of marine resources. No one solution will address the challenges facing wild Pacific salmon. Collaboration and consultation will be essential to the species survival.
Bibliography
Airdrie, B., McFaul, D., Thompson, H., Tischenko, M. (2015). Something is Fishy: Salmon Farming on the B.C. Coast. UBC: Student Research on Environment and Sustainability Issues. Retrieved from https://environment.geog.ubc.ca/something-is-fishy-salmon-farming-on-the-b-c-coast/
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Schmunk, R. (2017). Salmon farms should be worried about more than just one species of sea lice, researcher says. CBC News. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/sea-lice-bc-salmon-1.4162794
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